The Piece of the Month for June 2026

Watermarks in an 1810 Roncales Account Book

José Ignacio Riezu Boj
Chair Navarrese Heritage and Art

A key feature of handmade paper is the presence of watermarks. These marks, visible only when held up to the light, are created during the papermaking process by imprinting various designs into the mold used to shape the pulp. Originating in Italy in the late 13th century, they spread throughout Europe as a hallmark of master papermakers. Over time, their use became more sophisticated through the use of double watermarks, with designs on opposing sheets (mark and countermark), which included not only the mill’s anagram but also the manufacturer’s name, the location, and, on occasion, the year of production and the paper’s quality. This sophistication was less common in lower-quality papers.

notebook

The document we have studied is an notebook Javier Fermín Ros (Roncal 1761–Roncal 1821), a notary in the town of Roncal between 1788 and 1821. Ros belonged to a family dynasty that had held that position at least 1567.

The notebook, preserved in a private home in Roncal, consists of 228 pages containing entries dated between 1810 and 1823. Its title page bears the registration: “Account Book of Mr. Javier Fermín Ros,” which begins with the month of January of the year 1810, No. 5 (image 1). Inside, 39 loose fragments were found containing notes or promissory notes, along with six letters addressed to the notary, all written on laid paper. The study focused on determining the origin of the 18 different watermarks found in the notebook, on 12 of the account documents, and on five of the letters.

 
Cover of notebook under study

French filigree 

Every page of notebook a double watermark. On one half of the sheet appears the manufacturer’s mark, with the inscriptions“M Brun / Oleron”or“Marc Brun / O leron”alternating randomly, both in cursive script. On the opposite half, we find the countermark, consisting of three simple circles arranged vertically, topped by a cross; this countermark is also known as “the three O’s” (image 2). 

 
Ornate designs found on the pages of notebook account notebook

Upon examining the documents contained in the notebook, six additional watermarks have been identified, corresponding to five variants with the following inscriptions and dates:“BRUN”(1823),“M BRUN”(1815),“M [heart] BRUN OLERON”(1814),“Marc Brun”(1814), and on two sheets,“Marc Brun D’Oleron”(1818 and 1819). The first three are in uppercase letters and the last two in cursive (image 3). It is worth noting that the document containing the design , being a large double-sheet (43.5x30.5 cm), allows one to observe on the opposite page the “three O’s” countermark consisting of simple circles, very similar to that in notebook. 

 
French watermarks found on loose pages from notebook (the year of the grade is indicated)

Finally, in three account documents dated 1819 (two copies) and 1822, only the “three O’s” countermark has been identified. In this case, the design three distinct variations characterized by the use of double circles (Figure 4)

 
"Three O" watermarks found on loose pages from notebook (the year of the grade is indicated)

In all likelihood, all of these watermarks belong to Marc Brun, a master papermaker who worked between 1792 and 1833 at the Cassabé mill, located in Oloron-Sainte-Marie, in the French region of Béarn, a short distance from the border with the Roncal Valley. Marc Brun leased the mill in 1792 and purchased it in 1817. Upon his death in 1833, the business passed to his son Jean. The Bruns were a family with a long tradition in papermaking. Both his father and grandfather (both named Jean) as well as his great-grandfather (Leonard) worked official document much of the 18th century at the Mirepeix mill (40 kilometers from Olorón). Likewise, his brothers continued the family tradition at the mills in Bagnères, Mirepeix, and Cassabé.

Navarrese filigree

We have identified Navarrese watermarks in five documents. During the early decades of the 19th century, three paper mills are known to have existed in Navarre: the one at the General Hospital of Pamplona, active since 1755; the one in Aoiz, founded in 1773 by the Marquis of Guirior, Viceroy of Peru, who was born in Aoiz in 1708; and the one in Leiza, which opened in 1836.

In a letter dated 1822 sent from Pamplona, we find a watermark from the mill of the General Hospital of Pamplona. The design sample rampant lion within a double circle, accompanied by an imperial crown and the abbreviated inscription“HOSP DEPAMP” (Figure 5A).

 
Navarrese filigree found on loose pages from notebook (the year of the grade is indicated)

Meanwhile, in another letter from 1820, sent from Ochagavía, and on two receipts (one from 1811 and another undated), watermarks from the Aoiz mill appear. They show the two swords of the town’s coat of arms within a double circle with the inscription“GUIRIOR AOIZ,”in reference letter its founder. (images 5B, D, and E).

At both mills, as well as at the one in Leiza, it was common for master papermakers to include their signature a watermark. In fact, one such signature was found in some accounts from 1821, with the registration ^“Fabe Ragueta” registration cursive (image 5C). This watermark identifies one of the region’s most active dynasties: the Ragueta family, of French origin. 

The founder of the family line was Bernardo Ragueta, who, after serving as official document southwestern France, settled in Navarre. His first lease was for the Aoiz mill in 1786, although a year later he was working at the Pamplona mill. In 1791, the lease on the Aoiz mill passed to his son, Vicente Ragueta. Following Bernardo’s death in 1795, the lease on the Pamplona mill passed to his widow, Graciana Binaflor, and his other son, Francisco, until the latter’s death around 1826.

Aragonese and Catalan filigree

In a letter sent from Zaragoza in 1816, a watermark has been identified consisting of a central double circle with illegible content, from which four clusters of grapes—each formed by eight small circles—radiate out in a cross pattern. Below the figure appears the registration “GAUDO”in capital letters (image 6A). This mark belonged to the mill of Domingo Almenara-Gaudó in Valderrobres (Teruel) in the Matarraña River basin. This was one of the most important paper-making centers in Aragon during the last third of the 18th century and much of the 19th century.

 
Aragonese and Catalan watermarks found on loose pages from notebook (the year of the grade is indicated)

Furthermore, on a double-sheet of account records dated 1813 and 1814, a watermark has been identified depicting a jug with a handle on the right side. At the base of the figure, the letter“J”is visible, and just below it, the surname “MONTAL surname ”both in uppercase letters (image 6B). This is the watermark of master papermaker Jacinto Montal Arizo, who was active in the early decades of the 19th century at the Comercio mill in Villanueva de Gállego (Zaragoza), one of the largest paper-making centers in Aragon.

Finally, on an undated account sheet, a fragment of a watermark has been identified sample two rampant lions flanking a tower with a central doorway resting on a small pedestal (image 6C). This mark belongs to the Guarro family, who owned a paper mill in the Torre de Claramunt (Capellades, Barcelona). This mill was located in the Anoia River basin, which by 1810 had 49 mills, making it the largest paper-making center in Catalonia.

Conclusions

The documents examined, dating from 1810 to 1823, cover the War of Independence and the immediate postwar period, a time that radically transformed the Roncal Valley. Following devastating events such as the Battle of Las Bochuelas and the destruction of Burgui in 1809, the valley suffered under French occupation until, in 1813, it became the route of retreat for Napoleon’s troops. This status war and ruin most likely forced the paper trade to seek domestic alternatives to its traditional dependence on the French market. However, the analysis of the 18 watermarks found in this study demonstrates that the Roncal Valley’s link to the French market persisted. The data confirm data : 10 watermarks are of French origin (55.5%), 5 come from Navarre (27.8%), and 3 are of Aragonese or Catalan origin (16.7%). We know from other programs of study that the Roncal Valley’s commercial ties with France, particularly with Oloron, remained intact even during the most critical moments of the conflict.

It is particularly striking that all of the French watermarks found belong to Marc Brun’s Cassabé mill in Olorón. This fact suggests that this paper manufacturer may have held a monopoly on supplies to the Roncal Valley, a hypothesis that will need to be confirmed through the study of additional documents from that period.
 

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